Genomics

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Genomics

Written by tusharm on

From: stay-healthy-and-fit.com

Genomics is the study of an organism's entire genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. In contrast, the investigation of single genes, their functions and roles, something very common in today's medical and biological research, and a primary focus of molecular biology, does not fall into the definition of genomics, unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.

For the United States Environmental Protection Agency, "the term "genomics" encompasses a broader scope of scientific inquiry and associated technologies than when genomics was initially considered. A genome is the sum total of all an individual organism's genes. Thus, genomics is the study of all the genes of a cell, or tissue, at the DNA (genotype), mRNA (transcriptome), or protein (proteome) levels."

History

Genomics was established by Fred Sanger when he first sequenced the complete genomes of a virus and a mitochondrion. His group established techniques of sequencing, genome mapping, data storage, and bioinformatic analyses in the 1970-1980s. A major branch of genomics is still concerned with sequencing the genomes of various organisms, but the knowledge of full genomes has created the possibility for the field of functional genomics, mainly concerned with patterns of gene expression during various conditions. The most important tools here are microarrays and bioinformatics. Study of the full set of proteins in a cell type or tissue, and the changes during various conditions, is called proteomics. The actual term 'genomics' is thought to have been coined by Dr. Tom Roderick, a geneticist at the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME) over beer at a meeting held in Maryland on the mapping of the human genome in 1986.

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. In 1976, the team determined the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA. The first DNA-based genome to be sequenced in its entirety was that of bacteriophage Φ-X174; (5,368 bp), sequenced by Frederick Sanger in 1977.

The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae (1.8 Mb) in 1995, and since then genomes are being sequenced at a rapid pace. A rough draft of the human genome was completed by the Human Genome Project in early 2001, creating much fanfare.

As of September 2007, the complete sequence was known of about 1879 viruses, 577 bacterial species and roughly 23 eukaryote organisms, of which about half are fungi. Most of the bacteria whose genomes have been completely sequenced are problematic disease-causing agents, such as Haemophilus influenzae. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) has long been an important model organism for the eukaryotic cell, while the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been a very important tool (notably in early pre-molecular genetics). The worm Caenorhabditis elegans is an often used simple model for multicellular organisms. The zebrafish Brachydanio rerio is used for many developmental studies on the molecular level and the flower Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism for flowering plants. The Japanese pufferfish (Takifugu rubripes) and the spotted green pufferfish (Tetraodon nigroviridis) are interesting because of their small and compact genomes, containing very little non-coding DNA compared to most species. The mammals dog (Canis familiaris), brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), mouse (Mus musculus), and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) are all important model animals in medical research.

Bacteriophage genomics

Bacteriophages have played and continue to play a key role in bacterial genetics and molecular biology. Historically, they were used to define gene structure and gene regulation. Also the first genome to be sequenced was a bacteriophage. However, bacteriophage research did not lead the genomics revolution, which is clearly dominated by bacterial genomics. Only very recently has the study of bacteriophage genomes become prominent, thereby enabling researchers to understand the mechanisms underlying phage evolution. Bacteriophage genome sequences can be obtained through direct sequencing of isolated bacteriophages, but can also be derived as part of microbial genomes. Analysis of bacterial genomes has shown that a substantial amount of microbial DNA consists of prophage sequences and prophage-like elements. A detailed database mining of these sequences offers insights into the role of prophages in shaping the bacterial genome.

Cyanobacteria genomics

At present there are 24 cyanobacteria for which a total genome sequence is available. 15 of these cyanobacteria come from the marine environment. These are six Prochlorococcus strains, seven marine Synechococcus strains, Trichodesmium erythraeum IMS101 and Crocosphaera watsonii WH8501. Several studies have demonstrated how these sequences could be used very successfully to infer important ecological and physiological characteristics of marine cyanobacteria. However, there are many more genome projects currently in progress, amongst those there are further Prochlorococcus and marine Synechococcus isolates, Acaryochloris and Prochloron, the N2-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena, Lyngbya aestuarii and Lyngbya majuscula, as well as bacteriophages infecting marine cyanobaceria. Thus, the growing body of genome information can also be tapped in a more general way to address global problems by applying a comparative approach. Some new and exciting examples of progress in this field are the identification of genes for regulatory RNAs, insights into the evolutionary origin of photosynthesis, or estimation of the contribution of horizontal gene transfer to the genomes that have been analyzed.

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TJThurmondMorris said...

UNIFICATION THEORY OF EVERYTHING - AGASHAN SHAMAN METAPHYSICIANS SERIES - TAKEN UP Series - Part 4 By: Theresa Janette Thurmond Morris This is an introduction to the space of the time travelers that are called Ascension Agashans. There are metaverses laws that exist outside of universal laws that exist outside the laws of nature. Unification is all about the acceptance of expansion of change that is metaverses in nature while we are on earth. We use our species on earth as simply a point of origin in triangulation of thought which exists as energy that goes forever in space-time on sound waves. There are few words that can be shared in music and sound that have not already been used. I know that when we sing that we connect notes that can be seen in sheet music. The notes that we presently used are accepted as a language we use in music. The way we speak the language of sound in music is only one formula that can be used in science. We use songs in music and notes in various time formulas to create lyrics that attach to the tune or musical notes. We connect the words with the notes and on this planet that is expanding, spinning, wobbling, and vibrating at the same time, we Agashans know that we all share a common reality that is an accepted way of being while here in space time. We are in agreement that we will share the bubbles we call universes that together are called metaverses. We know that in between the lines and spaces is the connection of the song of dimensions. We stay clear of the black holes which connects or ties the metaverses together. The song that is pieced together with bars has various time frames that are created. There is presently a 4 beats per measure that equals quarter notes. We Agashans of the metaverses are writing a new song. Agashans can exist in various galaxies which are the notes that exist on the various strings of the universes songs. Science will be able to come up with an equation that is a unification or song based on all the metaverses that are expanding. Consider the galaxies only parts of the notes that sit on the lines that are separated by bars that have a tempo we call speed of sound and light at the same time yet the speed of sound travels faster than the speed of light. This will be taught in the next twenty years while this Agashan Shaman Metaphsician Oracle is still in physical form in agreement with others who are magnetized to connect to me and my personal song. I personally am looking toward Michio Kaku to explain what I know. I chose him and cannot explain to other scientists why except that this is just part of who I am for my sound communication. This could change because my decision is a variable in who I connect too in my bubble. There is now wobble, warp membranes shortened to brane and our energy that we call mass, space, time, in the space time continuum will have to be explained but not before December 21, 2012 11:11 when those who are in tune with the brane will get the big aha that reaches bountifully past that which we call the string theory. The best way that I can explain this as a space time traveler is how I view the met averse while existing outside and inside my physical reality we refer to as the body-mind-spirit. The body-mind spirit exists. We all know this. We know that we can all cluster cells based on prior cluster cells with the memory of creation. What gives the creation memory is used in what we call DNA and RNA and in nuclear philosophy stratosphere. We all know now that there is more than planets that revolve around the sun. We all know that there are more galaxies in this universe that revolve around something wider and much bigger than the expansion of the God Particle. Because we now understand that there is more expanding outwardly as we peel off our own skin or shed our own cells the energy that many are searching for to find the words to explain other words, work, worlds, galaxies, and universes is the energy that connects us all through sound. We all know that gravity, magnetism, energy, and mass as matter and antimatter exists in space-time. We are all aware that wormholes are made when we take the brane and bend it to meet just like we can here a not played from a trumpet. Take this world that nature tunes to E flat on the scale of 8 lines in music. Now take the lines in music next to each other which creates the spaces. There are 7 spaces between these lines. That is 15 place markers in a musical scale. 15 is the magical number we use to create the space time fabric we call a grid or matrix that we call our universe. Time travel is more than a two or three dimensional way of thinking. Sound is energy that like all else that exists in this universe. We now know that we can send sound as music faster than the speed of light. This gives us a new way to evolve our past way of thinking about light when we add sound as speed of light. We have now taken the speed of light as Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, E=MC2 and added the infinity squared that creates the infinity sign of figure 8 to become one part of an equation. Now take the opposing infinity sign or 8 and place it inside the equation as well which some call a pretzel in the space time fabric that allows worm holes which are the spaces in between these lines or in linear time as we think of the speed of light. Space time fabric bends just like when our galaxy falls on the grid or brane. Each galaxy is expanding while the universe is expanding. The galaxies can lie flat as they rotate and expand at the same time which with all three directions that we call three dimension are expanding at the same time and bending space in a way that comes around ever so often but this can be predicted while being travelers in space. There is one law that cannot be predicted that creates black holes or pinholes that drop from this one stretch of fabric like the grid of a trampoline. This universe of the layers and expansions has laws that allow for the sound to travel in lines or in the space in-between the string theory. The web or grid needs the space in-between the strings that make up the membrane which is actually stationary as there is a universe stacked above and below in the met averse. The black holes are where the galaxies are tied above and below and where nothing escapes the darkness of the gravity forces that pull from one universe into another. Those who we share this universe with as other intelligent beings use the wormholes to travel in this universe from one galaxy to another. However, they avoid all black holes in space that can be predicted, seen, and avoided know to attach universes above and below. Think of it as the universe is tied together with other metaverses that are the legs and in the grid we call the 4 legs the forth dimensions of met universes. When we build a universe we have a pyramid structure with a bottom as the base of what we call the below dimension. We have the three sides of what we call three dimensions of time space and connection or when we refer to our physical reality in body-mind-spirit, we say that we need, sleep, exercise, and nourishment to sustain our existence. Inside the pyramid is the all that exists in various ways of thinking. The point at the top of the pyramid is where we can join the three sides and the space inside that is set upon a base or membrane. In the universe that we build or create there will be outside forces that exist in order to have space. In a way we can call the space the circles created with the lines or what some have called the string theory. The string theory is only part of the equation. One has to add the space our whole theory that is created in between the string theory that guides the strings of the grid in the brane that can bend which we use in space time to equate to the matrix or grid that we perceive as the universe or trampoline. That our galaxy and others bounce around on. So, if one can imagine that there are many beings, entities or beings bouncing around on the trampoline we call a universe then one can understand that we call create the bends in the space time fabric brane of the trampoline that is connected to other multiverses by way of an above and below as dimensions. We are expanding based on the other expansions happening at the same time while the universe is expanding based on the energy that is created from the galaxies bouncing around on the universal trampoline. In order for us to get from one trampoline to another we first must understand the connection or force that causes one universe to exist above and below while being connected with the four corners or legs of al trampolines we call the four dimensions. On earth in nature we use the four elements as our legs which are air, fire, wind, earth. Magnetism is one of the laws in the universes which changes directions ever so often in what we call space time. Energy we know goes forever and the gravity force that is obvious and has been used in most all of Newton and Einstein’s equations is now used with that of Maxwell as to why electricity can effect magnetism. The one ingredient that was left out of the electricity effects magnetism on a compass as a directional tool was that when lightning strikes it makes sound. There have been many beings working on unification or the unified field of everything. They simply have to add the missing fourth ingredient that is sound. We call music sound and the music is now the way we will go forward and evolve into the next level past the Newton-Einstein-Maxwell-Kaku combined theory to work in the fourth dimension. We can call the N + E+ M + K equal to what we already call the A +E + F + W of time we share as existence of the four elements. After all, the theory of everything is only a way to communicate through sound as perception so that we can all synergize our whole unified theory. Agashan Shaman Oracles are trained to use all elements in alchemy and in metaphysics. Ontology, the study of being used all the magic of mathematical formula as in Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Physics, and Quantum Theory. We those who are about the study of being are the observers that understand that there does not have to be an observer with sight when we can hear sound waves with our spirit and soul and do not have to use our physical bodies. After all, the physical bodies do not exist in our reality most of the time.